The “divine council” refers to the biblical and ancient Near Eastern idea that God presides over a heavenly assembly of spiritual beings. 

Far from a fringe concept, this imagery appears throughout the Hebrew Bible and Second Temple literature, and it has received significant attention in modern scholarship.  The following bibliography highlights reliable, academically grounded resources, from foundational studies to accessible introductions, that I hope will help readers explore the theme with clarity and depth.  Keep in mind that these works are not all from confessional Christian authors nor do I agree with everything the authors write, but these are all worth study for the serious student interested in the ancient Near East, Second Temple Judaism, or the divine council in general.

This bibliography will be lengthy and will vary between accessible and advanced material (some material may be harder to find).  If you’ve consumed all the basics, then the next steps I’d recommend are either broadening your reading on the ANE or Second Temple contexts in general, or reading translations of the ancient texts themselves.  A third option would be to understand the hermeneutics behind intertextuality (ie, the NT use of the OT).

These are not necessarily given in any particular order.  (List may be updated later!)

Divine Council Bibliography

Accessible Introductions (for motivated lay readers)

Scholarly, but written at a level approachable for non-specialists.

• Michael S. Heiser, The Unseen Realm (Lexham, 2015).
  Popular-level entry point that synthesizes the divine council worldview for a Christian audience.  (If even “less-scholarly” is desired—meaning, no footnotes, etc—then Heiser’s Supernatural is a great start; it contains the same material as The Unseen Realm.)
  
  
• Michael S. Heiser, Angels: What the Bible Really Says About God’s Heavenly Host (Lexham, 2018).
  A more specific treatment than The Unseen Realm; this book provides the most accessible breakdown currently available on the “angelic” realm.
  
  
• Tim Steadman, Answers to Giant Questions: How Understanding the Biblical Nephilim Will Enlarge Your Faith (2019).
  Written for thoughtful lay readers, this book addresses the biblical material on giants, the Nephilim, and related supernatural themes in the divine council worldview. While not an academic volume with footnotes, it seeks to bridge responsible biblical study with questions commonly raised in popular-level discussions.
  
  
• John H. Walton and Craig S. Keener (eds.), NIV Cultural Backgrounds Study Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016).
  A study Bible designed to bring the world of the ancient Near East and Second Temple Judaism into conversation with the biblical text.  While not focused exclusively on the divine council, its notes often highlight assembly and cosmic imagery, helping lay readers see these motifs within their historical and cultural contexts.
  
  
• John Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One (IVP, 2009).
  While not strictly centered on the “divine council,” provides an ANE framework that helps situate divine assembly thought for readers without technical training.

Brief Foundations

Brief works that introduce the concept, texts, and scholarly framework.

• E. Theodore Mullen, Jr., “Divine Assembly” in Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (vol. 2, 1992).
  Concise scholarly entry on the topic. Clear, cautious, and widely cited.
  
  
• Michael S. Heiser, “Divine Council” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry, and Writings (IVP, 2008).
  Deeply rooted in Hebrew Bible exegesis and reflective of the wider scholarship from Dr. Heiser.
  
  
• Lowell K. Handy, Among the Host of Heaven: The Syro-Palestinian Pantheon as Bureaucracy (Eisenbrauns, 1994).
  A foundational monograph—careful, technical, and still influential for understanding divine bureaucracy language.
  
  
• John Day, God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea (Cambridge, 1985).
  Classic work tying biblical divine council imagery to ANE chaoskampf traditions.
  
  

Advanced Studies

More technical or wide-ranging explorations for readers who want to engage at the scholarly edge.

• Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism (Oxford, 2001).
  Explores Ugaritic background and the move from divine council to Israelite monotheism.
  
  
• Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God (Eerdmans, 2nd ed., 2002).
  Groundbreaking; charts the transformation of Israel’s pantheon into monotheism.
  
  
• Benjamin Sommer, The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel (Cambridge, 2009).
  Not only about divine council, but indispensable for understanding fluidity in divine embodiment and plurality.
  
  
• Daniel E. Fleming, The Legacy of Israel in Judah’s Bible (Cambridge, 2012).
  Traces polytheistic language and divine council echoes through Israelite religion.
  
  
• John J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (WJK, 1997).
  Touches key wisdom texts (Job, Daniel) with divine council themes in a Second Temple context.
  
  
• Archie T. Wright, The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of Genesis 6:1–4 in Early Jewish Literature (Mohr Siebeck, 2005).
  Essential for connecting the council worldview with the Watchers and later demonology.
  
  

Comparative and Contextual Studies

ANE and Mediterranean parallels that situate the divine council in its ancient world.

• Kenton L. Sparks, Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature (Hendrickson, 2005).
  A highly accessible yet rigorous guide to the major corpora of ANE literature—Ugaritic, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and more—that illuminate Israel’s worldview. While not devoted only to the divine council, Sparks equips readers with the comparative tools necessary to situate biblical texts within their broader cultural and religious environment.
  
  
• James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 3rd ed. with Supplement, 1969).
  The classic anthology (commonly cited as ANET) of Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Hittite, and Ugaritic texts in translation—treaties, royal inscriptions, myths (e.g., Baal Cycle, Kirta, Aqhat), law codes, and more. Indispensable for primary-source context behind biblical divine assembly motifs (council scenes, royal ideology, cosmic combat). While newer translations appear in The Context of Scripture, ANET remains widely cited and accessible.
  
  
• William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger Jr. (eds.), The Context of Scripture (Leiden: Brill, 3 vols., 1997–2002).
  The modern replacement and expansion of ANET. Organized by genre—monumental inscriptions, treaties, hymns, prayers, myths, and more—this collection offers updated translations of key ANE texts in accessible English with scholarly introductions. Essential for work on divine council parallels, especially Ugaritic and Mesopotamian materials that illuminate Israel’s cosmic assembly imagery.
  
  
• Alfred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly, and Edwin M. Yamauchi (eds.), Peoples of the Old Testament World (Baker Academic, 1994).
  A comprehensive reference work introducing the major nations surrounding Israel—Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and others. Each chapter is written by a specialist, covering history, culture, religion, and texts. Valuable for understanding how Israel’s depiction of God’s heavenly council both parallels and polemicizes against the divine assemblies of its neighbors.
  
  
• Stephen Bertman, Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (Oxford University Press, 2003).
  An accessible yet scholarly survey of Mesopotamian civilization—covering politics, law, literature, mythology, and religion. While not devoted solely to divine council imagery, it provides crucial cultural context for understanding how heavenly assemblies in Mesopotamian myth and epic informed the symbolic world of Israel and the Hebrew Bible.
  
  
• Mark S. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle (Leiden: Brill, 1994–2009, 2 vols).
  Critical translation for understanding divine assemblies in Ugarit and their parallels in the Bible.
  
  
• John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament (Baker, 2nd ed., 2018).
  Introductory but scholarly, with clear framing of divine assembly language in ANE context.
  
  
• James H. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols., Yale University Press, 1983–1985).
  The go-to English collection of pseudepigraphal works, with introductions and notes by top scholars. Still standard for 1 Enoch, Jubilees, and others relevant to divine council and angelology.
  
  
• George W. E. Nickelsburg and James C. VanderKam, 1 Enoch: A New Translation (Fortress, 2004).
  Readable, reliable single-volume translation of 1 Enoch, which is indispensable for understanding the Watchers, angels, and cosmic rebellion in a council framework.
  
  
• Michael E. Stone, Jewish Writings of the Second Temple Period (Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum, vol. 2; Fortress, 1984).
  Excellent introductions and selections of texts; a bit older but still highly useful for guiding readers.
  
  
• David A. deSilva, Introducing the Apocrypha: Message, Context, and Significance (2nd ed., Baker, 2018).
  Best single-volume guide for lay readers. Walks through each Apocryphal book with background, themes, and theological significance. Widely recommended.
  
  
• Bruce M. Metzger, An Introduction to the Apocrypha (Oxford, 1957).
  Older but classic and still referenced; Metzger was a master at clarity.
  
  
• John J. Collins, Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora (2nd ed., Eerdmans, 1999).
  Explores Apocryphal texts like Wisdom of Solomon and Sirach within their cultural context — essential for understanding divine agency and wisdom traditions.
  
  
• Loren T. Stuckenbruck and Gabriele Boccaccini (eds.), Enoch and the Synoptic Gospels (SBL, 2016).
  A specialized but important collection on Enochic traditions and their impact on early Christianity.
  
  
• Flavius Josephus, The Works of Josephus (trans. William Whiston, rev. Hendrickson, multiple editions).
  Accessible, older English translation; widely available and inexpensive, though dated in style.
  
  
• Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities & Jewish War (Loeb Classical Library; Harvard University Press, various vols., 1926–1965).
  The scholarly gold standard: Greek text with facing English, excellent for serious study.
  
  
• Louis H. Feldman, Josephus and Modern Scholarship (1937–1980) (de Gruyter, 1984).
  Massive survey of scholarship — dense but authoritative.
  
  
• Steve Mason, Josephus and the New Testament (2nd ed., Hendrickson, 2003).
  Accessible and very helpful for situating Josephus in the world of early Christianity.
  
  
• Tessa Rajak, Josephus: The Historian and His Society (2nd ed., Duckworth, 2002).
  Balanced scholarly introduction to Josephus’ life, works, and context.
  
  
• Philo of Alexandria, The Works of Philo (trans. C. D. Yonge; Hendrickson, 1993).
  Classic one-volume English translation, still widely used; readable for nonspecialists.
  
  
• Philo, Loeb Classical Library Edition (12 vols., Harvard University Press, 1929–1964).
  The scholarly standard, with Greek text and facing English; indispensable for research.
  
  
• James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2010).
  Probably the best single-volume introduction for lay readers and students. Clear, engaging, up-to-date, and written by one of the leading Scrolls scholars.
  
  
• John J. Collins, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Biography (Princeton University Press, 2012).
  Part of Princeton’s “Lives of Great Religious Books” series. Less about translation, more about history, discovery, and significance. Excellent narrative overview.
  

Commentaries & Reference Works

Where divine council texts get serious treatment.  Some of these are more accessible than others; look carefully before deciding to dig in.

• Deuteronomy 32
  
  
• Jeffrey Tigay, Deuteronomy (JPS, 1996).
  
  
• Patrick Miller, Deuteronomy (Interpretation, 1990).
  
  
• Psalms
  
  
• Tremper Longman III, Psalms (TOTC, 2014).
  
  
• John Goldingay, Psalms (3 vols., Baker, 2006–2008).
  
  
• Marvin Tate, Psalms 51–100 (WBC, 1990).
  
  
• Job
  
  
• Carol A. Newsom, The Book of Job: A Contest of Moral Imaginations (Oxford, 2003).
  
  
• Daniel
  
  
• John J. Collins, Daniel (Hermeneia, 1993).
  
  
• Reference works
  
  
• Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter W. van der Horst (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD, 2nd ed., 1999).
  
  
• C.L. Seow, “Hosts, Lord of” in Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary.
  
  

Intertextuality and Hermeneutics

These resources equip readers to trace how New Testament writers echo, interpret, and transform Old Testament texts, including divine council imagery.  

• Douglass S. Huffman (ed.), Understanding the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Kregel Academic, 2021).
  A collection of essays by respected scholars that introduces key methods for tracing how NT writers employ OT texts. While not centered on divine council per se, it equips readers to recognize when OT council imagery, psalms, and prophetic texts are being echoed or re-applied in the NT.
  
  
• Gary Edward Schnittjer and Matthew S. Harmon, How to Study the Bible’s Use of the Bible: Seven Hermeneutical Choices for the Twenty-First Century (Zondervan Academic, 2024).
  A methodological guide that lays out the challenges and strategies of interpreting Scripture’s inner-biblical connections. Especially useful for readers wanting to handle intertextuality with nuance, balancing historical exegesis with canonical theology.

Special Topics & Further Reading

• Loren Stuckenbruck, The Myth of Rebellious Angels (Mohr Siebeck, 1997).
  Key for understanding how Enochic traditions connect to council/rebellion imagery.
  
  
• Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Eerdmans, 2003).
  Touches divine council indirectly via early high Christology debates.
  
  
• Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (IVP Academic, 2003).
  Covers key themes, texts, and backgrounds for Genesis–Deuteronomy, including council motifs in creation, covenant, and Deuteronomy 32.
  
  

• Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings (IVP Academic, 2008).
  Includes Michael Heiser’s important entry on “Divine Council” alongside treatments of Psalms, Job, and wisdom traditions that frequently draw on heavenly assembly imagery.
  
  

• Daniel I. Block and Richard S. Hess (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books (IVP Academic, 2005).
  Covers Joshua–Kings, with attention to themes of divine warfare, prophetic visions, and Yahweh’s sovereignty expressed through heavenly agents.
  
  

• Mark J. Boda and J. Gordon McConville (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets (IVP Academic, 2012).
  Articles on prophetic visions, angelology, and heavenly council imagery in Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve. Essential for prophetic texts that portray Yahweh enthroned among the host of heaven.
  
  

• Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall (eds.), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (2nd ed., IVP Academic, 2013).
  Comprehensive reference for the Gospels, including articles on kingdom, authority, angels, Satan, and intertextual echoes of the Hebrew Bible.
  
  

• Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (eds.), Dictionary of Paul and His Letters (2nd ed., IVP Academic, 2023).
  Freshly updated edition covering Pauline theology, exegesis, and use of the OT, with special attention to Christology, powers, and cosmic conflict imagery.
  
  

• Peter T. O’Brien, David G. Reid, and Gerald F. Hawthorne (eds.), Dictionary of the Later New Testament & Its Developments (IVP Academic, 1997).
  Covers Hebrews through Revelation, plus early church developments. Includes major entries on angelology, apocalyptic thought, and the heavenly throne room — key places where divine council language is reinterpreted.
  
  

• Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter (eds.), Dictionary of New Testament Background (IVP Academic, 2000).
  Essential for situating the NT in the context of Second Temple Judaism and the Greco-Roman world. Strong entries on apocalypticism, Qumran, wisdom traditions, and cosmology.
  
  

• Jason A. Staples, The Idea of Israel in Second Temple Judaism: A New Theory of People, Exile, and Israelite Identity (Cambridge University Press, 2021).
  Challenges the conventional equation of “Israel” with “Jews” or “Judah” by showing how Second Temple Jewish literature consistently distinguishes between them. His carefully argued paradigm suggests that “Israel” continues to carry a broader, pan-Israelite sense that includes the northern tribes—an identity framework crucial to understanding later concepts like divine restoration and spiritual incorporation.
  
  

• Jason A. Staples, Paul and the Resurrection of Israel: Jews, Former Gentiles, Israelites (Cambridge University Press, 2024).
  Repositions Paul's theology within the framework of “Israelite restoration eschatology.” Staples argues that Paul’s vision of inclusion (e.g., in Romans) doesn’t simply extend Judaism but enacts the resurrection of a spiritually and ethnically resurrected “Israel”—one that encompasses both believing Jews and gentile believers. This read offers a fresh lens for seeing how divine council traditions may inform Pauline cosmic-ecclesiological vision.