Gods, Idols, and the Battle for Worship: A Review of Thomas A. Judge’s Other Gods and Idols

TL;DR:

Did Israel go from polytheism to monotheism?  Do the prophets prove that the gods of the nations don’t exist?

This post shares some of my reactions to Thomas A. Judge’s scholarly work Other Gods and Idols.  The goal is to understand how the Old Testament distinguishes (or merges) the worship of other gods and idol worship.  Judge argues that before the fall of the Northern Kingdom, these were seen as two distinct-but-related problems: worshipping false gods, and wrongly worshipping YHWH through idols.  After the fall and the reforms that were triggered, the concern was largely about worshipping false gods.  

Judge explores how this affects our reading of Scripture, including possibly misunderstood stories like the golden calf and the broader theological battle between idolatry and “name theology” (God’s presence without images). 

Importantly, the Bible doesn’t deny the reality of the gods behind idols—only their power to save.  This isn’t about the evolution from polytheism to monotheism but about Israel’s changing theological focus.  The takeaway: God cares not only that He is worshiped, but also how.

Why Biblical Theology Matters

Biblical theology is not just “theology that’s biblical,” but rather it’s a methodology of studying the Bible in its own context.

Topics such as this demonstrate why biblical theology is important…because the Bible is not a systematic text where each author is talking about a particular topic in the same way, with the same views and concerns.  While the biblical authors are all involved with telling the story of God’s interaction with the world in salvation history, the particular concerns of the authors are shaped by their immediate historical and cultural contexts.

As such, studying the Bible in a methodological “biblical theology” way allows us to take into account the various authors and their context and concerns.  This helps us understand why the human authors used the language they did, and what their target was for that language.

At hand in this blog post is the topic of the gods and idolatry.  What is the relationship there, and why do the biblical authors describe things in the ways that they do?  What are their concerns?

This concept hits on the concerns of “monotheism” and the “evolution of religion” critical scholars who claim that there is an evolution in Israelite thought, going from “polytheistic” conceptions of the cosmos to an eventual “monotheistic” relationship with the one creator God.

Buckle your seat belts, we’re going to lay out some implications and import as I see them coming from the Deuteronomy 32 worldview.

Setting the Theological Stage

"Nearly every book of the Old Testament wrestles in some way with the worship of other gods or the worship of idols."

A slew of questions that you may not have even considered before:

• How are the worship of other gods and the use of idols related in the Old Testament? Are they one and the same, or are they distinct?
• Does the Bible teach a development from polytheism or monolatry to monotheism?
• What is the metaphysical status of the gods of the nations (especially in light of the Deuteronomy 32 worldview)?
• Do the Ten Commandments refer to worship of other gods, or right worship of the true God…or both? 
• What is the relationship between idolatry and proper worship, especially in light of "name theology”?

Your approach to these questions is deeply shaped by how you read the biblical text—especially whether you’re attentive to historical context, literary nuance, and theological intent.  And that’s exactly what Judge’s work helps us do.

Throughout this post, we’ll very briefly discuss how these questions are engaged in his study, especially through the lens of the Deuteronomy 32 worldview.  By the end, you’ll see how understanding the difference between gods and idols—and the evolution of Israel’s war against them—can reshape not only how you read Scripture but how you understand worship today.

Core Insight: Before and After the Fall of the Northern Kingdom

A main theme of Judge's book is that there is a marked shift in how the Old Testament treats idolatry before and after the fall of the Northern Kingdom.

"In texts depicting the era before the fall of the Northern Kingdom, there is strong reason to distinguish between the worship of other gods and the worship of idols. However, in texts depicting the era after...the issues appear to be fused."

This distinction matters for interpretation:

• Pre-fall: The Bible critiques idolatry on two fronts:
• Foreign Front: Worship of alien gods through their images.
• Domestic Front: Worship of YHWH through images—the "right God in the wrong way."

Here, the Deuteronomy 32 worldview is especially relevant:  it affirms that the gods of the nations are real spiritual beings allotted to the nations, in contrast to YHWH, who remains Israel’s unique inheritance.  In this context, worship (including the means of worship) of other gods isn’t merely symbolic or misguided—it was treason against the divine order established by YHWH Himself.

• Post-fall: The text largely merges these categories. Worship of other gods and idols is treated as a unified threat.

Understanding this progression—or shift in concern—is crucial.  What may look like an evolution toward “monotheism” or a denial of the reality of other gods is actually better understood as a redirection of theological emphasis.  The biblical writers weren’t philosophizing about ontology; they were waging a rhetorical and spiritual war.  The post-exilic focus zeros in on idolatry as the primary expression of rebellion, especially in the form it took within the nation of Israel itself.  

But even with reforms, the concern wasn’t over.  The battle against idolatry continued—not just against carved images, but against the deeper spiritual compromise they represented.  As Judge shows, the biblical texts never reduce idolatry to mere superstition or foreign error; they portray it as an ever-present threat to the covenant identity of God’s people.  The fusion of gods and idols in the post-fall era highlights just how pervasive the danger had become, not only in the nations around Israel, but embedded within Israel’s own religious instincts.  This shift demands that we read the text carefully—through the lens of a cosmic worldview like that of Deuteronomy 32, where loyalty to YHWH is not abstract theology but spiritual allegiance in a contested realm.  

(Bonus train:  Did you see that word “fall”??  What would happen if the concept of the “fall” of the northern kingdom in exile colored the way we read Genesis 3?? …Do you think that might be in the minds of those who compiled the Hebrew Bible during/after the exile?)

Textual Ambiguity and Theological Significance

The context of the Ten Commandments is, of course, before the first exile.  As such, it is bringing forward multiple concerns.  Not only are the people tempted to worship other gods, but they are also tempted to worship YHWH in the same way that the other gods are worshipped.  

Judge dives into several layers of ambiguity found in the Ten Commandments—specifically in how they address the worship of other gods and the use of images.  These ambiguities are not just linguistic or grammatical curiosities; they have major implications for how we interpret the text and understand Israel’s relationship with YHWH.

Some of the key interpretive challenges include:  

• How do we “count” the Ten Commandments?  Different traditions divide and number the commandments differently, which affects whether the prohibition against other gods and the prohibition against “graven images” are seen as one command or two.
  
  
• Are the commands referencing a divine image (which might include images of YHWH as well as the other gods) or a false god?  The Hebrew terms can refer to physical images, spiritual beings, or sometimes both. 
  
  
• Do the plural pronouns (“you shall not bow down to them or serve them”) refer back to “other gods” in the previous verse, or to “idols”?  The ambiguity here opens up different readings depending on how you connect the grammar. 
  
  
• Are all divine images condemned, or only those associated with foreign gods?  This question cuts to the heart of the issue:  is the concern limited to idolatry of false gods, or does it include attempts to image YHWH as well?  

Judge observes that these questions cannot be answered by grammar alone. Instead, interpretation depends heavily on theological context and the broader trajectory of the biblical narrative.  He writes:

“How an interpreter understands the relationship...depends on whether the prohibition of idols stands exclusively against divine images of alien deities, exclusively against divine images of YHWH, or inclusively against all divine images.”

Judge lands on the inclusive option: the prohibition targets any use of divine images in worship—whether aimed at Baal or at YHWH Himself.  This reading not only aligns with the Ten Commandments' structure but also makes better sense of stories like the golden calf.  That infamous episode may not have been a straightforward lapse into paganism.  Instead, it might represent a sincere—but deeply flawed—attempt to worship YHWH through an image, which still violated the command.  As Judge highlights, “YHWH’s appointed priest makes the calf...and it is found at the center of a festival dedicated to YHWH.”  This is not just idol worship—it’s misdirected worship of the true God.

Name Theology vs. Idolatry

A striking insight from Judge’s book is the distinction between idolatry and what biblical scholars refer to as “name theology.”  This difference goes beyond the surface issue of religious practice—it reflects a deeper understanding of how divine presence is to be conceived and encountered. 

• Idolatry represents a localized, substandard attempt to embody the divine presence.  Whether the image is meant to represent a false god or even YHWH Himself, the issue is that it limits, contains, and distorts the reality of the divine.
  
  
• Name theology, by contrast, reflects God’s chosen method of presence—“the place I will choose to put my name” (Deut. 12:5).  This formulation allows for intimacy with God without the error of attempting to confine Him to a physical form.

Judge draws this out with careful analysis of the golden calf incident.  He notes:

“The calf is left behind but the ark and the tablets go on. This sequence directly contrasts the calf as the illegitimate mode of YHWH’s presence with YHWH’s word...the legitimate mode.”

This contrast is crucial.  The biblical authors weren’t simply condemning who was being worshipped, but also how.  Misrepresenting YHWH—even with sincere intentions—was still rebellion.

And while some pagan texts did include concepts of a divine “name” or “memra” (especially in later thought), the Bible’s fierce polemic against idolatry shows that its understanding of God’s presence was categorically different.  The biblical worldview made a decisive break:  the Name signifies presence, but not containment.  God is present where He places His Name, not where humans build an image.

In other words, fidelity to YHWH required both theological precision and liturgical obedience.  Name theology preserved God’s transcendence while affirming His relational nearness—a powerful counter to the worldview of surrounding nations, where gods were often “housed” in images.  For Israel, the tabernacle (and later the temple) wasn’t about containing God, but about hosting His Name in covenantal relationship.

On the Reality of the Gods

One of the most misunderstood aspects of biblical theology is the assumption that the Old Testament outright denies the existence of other gods.  Judge challenges this notion head-on.  He doesn't argue that these beings are on par with YHWH, nor that the Bible condones their worship.  Rather, he points out that many biblical polemics are not making ontological claims—they're making soteriological ones.

In other words, the prophets weren’t engaging in metaphysical philosophy about whether these beings exist.  They were declaring, with rhetorical fire, that these gods cannot save.

“To say that a deity is not able to defend its people from the hand of YHWH is not the same as saying that the deity does not exist.”

This distinction matters.  Judge shows that texts like Isaiah 44 mock idols for being powerless, but they stop short of denying the existence of the gods those idols represent.  The point isn’t that these gods are figments of imagination; it’s that they are impotent in the face of YHWH’s sovereign will.

“Even in Deutero-Isaiah, it is one thing to say that divine images are not gods and another to say that the gods that are associated with the images do not exist. The two are not the same and the jump from one to the other should not be assumed.”

This reading fits neatly within the Deuteronomy 32 worldview, which affirms the existence of other spiritual beings—called gods, or elohim—assigned to the nations.  These beings are real but subordinate to YHWH.  The biblical authors weren’t arguing against belief in these beings; they were proclaiming that only YHWH is worthy of worship because only YHWH has the power to save.

Judge’s contribution here is crucial.  He pushes back against modern theological oversimplification, where idols are seen as mere “nothingness,” and highlights the biblical view:  the gods are real, but they are defeated.  They are not the Creator, not the covenant Lord, and not the Savior.  In the prophetic imagination, idolatry isn’t dangerous because it’s fake—it’s dangerous because it’s a betrayal of the One True God in favor of cosmic pretenders.

Reclaiming the Battle Lines

Understanding the nuanced biblical portrayal of gods and idols isn’t just a matter of ancient history—it shapes how we read Scripture, how we preach the gospel, and how we discern faithfulness in our own worship.  Judge’s work reminds us that the Bible is not narrating a philosophical evolution from polytheism to monotheism.  Rather, it is tracing the contours of a cosmic conflict, where loyalty to YHWH is constantly contested both by rival deities and by misdirected devotion.  And even when the people of God might fix things up a bit, there’s still major concerns at hand.  

What changes across the biblical timeline is not God's nature, but Israel’s spiritual battlefield.  Before the fall of the Northern Kingdom, the war was fought on two fronts: against foreign gods and against the temptation to worship YHWH wrongly.  After the fall and reforms, the fight narrowed—but intensified—against the idols of the nations.  This shift is not theological simplification; it’s rhetorical and pastoral urgency.  

To flatten these dynamics into simplistic slogans—“the idols are just imaginary,” or “monotheism emerged over time”—is to miss the brilliance of the biblical witness.  The biblical authors were not philosophizing about metaphysics; they were declaring the supremacy of YHWH over all rival claims, visible and invisible.  

At the heart of this discussion is a vital, enduring question:  What does it mean to worship the true God rightly?

The answer isn’t found in statues or shrines, but in the Name, the Word, and the Presence of YHWH.

As Judge shows, and as the biblical story proclaims, it is not only who we worship that matters—but how.

To collapse gods and idols into a single category is to miss the careful distinction Scripture draws.  To confuse divine presence with carved images is to risk domesticating the glory of the Most High.

So as we take up this ancient question afresh, let us do so not with modern assumptions, but with biblical eyes—eyes that see the heavens declaring the glory of God, even as the gods of the nations fall silent before Him.

“The gods of the peoples are idols, but the Lord made the heavens.” —Psalm 96:5